Multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) and sport: what 59 studies say about transfer to the field

In brief. Multiple object tracking (MOT, 3D-MOT in stereoscopic 3D) has you follow several moving targets among identical distractors. Elite athletes do better at it, especially under heavy load. With training, the task improves, but no controlled trial shows a gain in matches, and the score predicts neither a season nor recruitment. 59 studies analyzed. Updated November 3, 2026.

Hello to you, the movement professional,

Eight spheres float in a virtual cube, in 3D. Four light up for an instant, then become identical to the others again, and all of them start moving. For eight seconds, the athlete has to keep the four targets in mind, then point them out. If they succeed, the speed goes up on the next trial; if they get it wrong, it goes down. By the end of the session, about twenty trials and roughly six minutes, they leave with a speed threshold in centimeters per second.

In Montreal, the laboratory that developed this task had 62 players from a professional academy do at least 26 sessions over ten weeks, the last five weeks as a dual task. The trained players' threshold rose by about 56 cm/s, against 11 in the controls. Their small-sided games, filmed and then scored blind by two coaches, did not improve any more than the controls'. The title of the paper begins with "No transfer" (Romeas et al., 2025).

The objection comes immediately, and it is a serious one: elite players are clearly better at this task, so it must be touching something that matters on the field. The literature lets us separate three questions that are often confused: what the score reveals about expertise, what it predicts about play, and what training it changes.

Multiple object tracking: a laboratory paradigm born in 1988

Zenon Pylyshyn and Ron Storm set up the task almost forty years ago. Their participants tracked up to five objects among ten, all identical and moving at random. With the parameters used, an attentional sweep from one object to the next would not have exceeded about 40% success; the subjects reached 87%. The authors drew from this the idea of a small number of visual indexes that track several objects in parallel (Pylyshyn and Storm, 1988).

Since then, this paradigm has been used to study dynamic visual attention (Meyerhoff et al., 2017). A recent review details what it draws on: divided and sustained attention, central and peripheral vision, inhibitory control, in connection with working memory. Near transfer to attentional tasks is consistent, far transfer varies from one study to another (Marion et al., 2025).

The stereoscopic version, 3D-MOT, entered sport in 2013, with a study of 308 observers. Professional soccer, hockey and rugby players learned the task faster there than high-level amateurs, who were themselves faster than non-athlete students (Faubert, 2013). This result concerns a learning speed, measured in a scene with no sporting context and no motor demand. The critical review by Vater, Gray and Holcombe, devoted to one of the most widespread commercial tools, makes the same point on substance: according to hundreds of studies in vision science, the abilities underlying object tracking are not the ones manufacturers advertise (Vater et al., 2021).

Experts versus novices: a clear advantage, except under certain conditions

The meta-analysis by Liu et al. pools 23 studies and 1,453 subjects. Athletes outperform non-athletes (g = 0.56), and experts outperform novices (g = 0.92); the type of sport modulates the gap, and the number of targets and the tracking duration modulate the one between experts and novices (Liu et al., 2024). Heterogeneity is high (I² from 80 to 83%), ten studies out of 23 concern basketball and only one uses 3D-MOT.

The detail shows where the advantage appears and where it fades:

The advantage grows with load, more targets or more speed. It depends on the sport: a ball sport with opponents widens the gap, swimming does not. It can also disappear when the required response changes or when the footing becomes unstable. Memmert, Simons and Grimme, for their part, found no expert advantage on their measures of visual attention (Memmert et al., 2009).

What the expert's brain does during tracking

In functional MRI, 23 basketball players activate the left frontal eye field and the anterior part of the intraparietal sulcus, on both sides, less than 24 non-athletes (Qiu et al., 2019): the authors speak of neural efficiency. In 80 students, measures of the primary somatosensory cortex and the superior parietal lobule are modestly linked to tracking (r from 0.20 to 0.40; Zhang et al., 2026). The superior parietal lobule belongs to the posterior parietal cortex, which organizes visual space for action.

As for the occipital alpha rhythm, athletes have a higher peak frequency, which mediates their advantage in classic tracking, but not in a task where you steer an object yourself to avoid others (Mackenzie et al., 2024). In 18 elite and 20 intermediate hockey players, individual alpha frequency is linked to tracking accuracy (Zhang et al., 2021).

Does the score predict play? Strong correlations in small groups, silence over a season

The first figures looked spectacular. In 12 NBA players, tracking speed is correlated with assists (r = 0.78), steals (r = 0.77) and the assist-to-turnover ratio (r = 0.78), whereas motor reaction time is linked to no statistic (Mangine et al., 2014). Jin et al. (2020) find this link with assists and steals in 24 high-level basketball players. Larger or longer studies tell a different story.

In basketball, two studies from the same team find a correlation above 0.6 between tracking at 4 or 5 targets and passing decisions (Gou and Li, 2023), and more accurate tracking in players whose fixations are shorter and fewer (Gou and Li, 2025). The meta-analysis by Yang et al. estimates the link between object tracking and sport-specific performance in team sports at r = 0.54, with a quality of evidence judged limited (Yang et al., 2026).

The gap between these figures has a probable explanation: the strong correlations come from small groups and chosen statistics, the null ones from cohorts followed over a season or a draft. Jin et al. (2026b) show in 20 shooters that an apparent link can arise from the collinearity between age and years of practice (r = 0.928); about 68 would be needed to conclude, according to their indicative estimate.

The training trials, one by one

Here are the trials that trained object tracking, alone or within another task, with their measure furthest from the exercise.

Romeas 2016, the positive reference result

The only trial that reports a gain on a game criterion compares 23 university soccer players: nine trained in object tracking, seven controls watching soccer videos in 3D, seven passive controls. Before and after ten sessions, all play 5-a-side on an indoor pitch, and a single experienced coach, blind to the protocol, codes the correctness of their decisions according to standardized criteria. Passing improves by about 15% in the trained group, dribbling and shooting do not move (Romeas et al., 2016).

The review by Vater et al. (2021) points out its limits: seven trained players according to it (nine according to the abstract), two control groups merged, a single coder where this type of study calls for two with measured agreement. The criterion is indeed a game action, but the gain concerns only one decision in three: the map in our synthesis of the evidence in sports vision therefore places this trial among the mixed results measured on a sport task, not among the clearly positive ones.

The replications, in soccer, volleyball and elsewhere

Four trials then looked for a transfer to play or to a sport movement: Harenberg 2022 (video-based passing decision), Phillips 2023 (match statistics), Fleddermann 2019 (laboratory blocking test) and Romeas 2025 (filmed small-sided games, scored by two blinded coaches). None finds a significant effect on decision-making, blocking or play. The last comes from the laboratory that developed the task, with nearly three times as many players as in 2016, and one of its co-authors declares a link with the company that markets the tool. The authors write that they did not manage to replicate the earlier results (Romeas et al., 2025).

The task improves in every trial that measures it, sometimes with near transfer to sustained attention, processing speed or working memory; far transfer does not follow. In 2018, the review by Harris et al. on commercial cognitive training tools found, across 43 studies, only one measure on a sport task, and attributed this gap to the small number of field studies and their lack of rigor rather than to demonstrated null effects (Harris et al., 2018). Three years later, Vater et al. find no preregistered study and three trials of far transfer to ecological tasks, two of them null. To compare with the other cognitive tools, read our article on near and far transfer.

Integrating tracking into the movement: dual task, agility and posture

In full-scale virtual reality, 57 participants combined 3D-MOT and sport decision-making: the dual task has a cost, and a task consolidated alone before being coupled to a motor decision seems to give better results than coupling it from the start (Romeas et al., 2019). The authors read this as a matter of shared attentional resources.

In 42 amateur soccer players randomized across three six-week programs, agility with decision-making and agility with object tracking both improve the Random Star Run (interaction η² of 0.42 with the ball and 0.59 without) and dribbling with a cognitive task, with no difference between them; the Loughborough passing test does not move in any group (Friebe et al., 2024). Tracking added to agility that was already decision-based brought nothing measurable. In 34 young soccer players aged 9, ten months of cognitive-motor dual-task training suggest a gain in object tracking, clearer in multisensory integration, with no effect on visuospatial memory (Székely et al., 2026).

Tracking also serves as a transfer test. Six weeks of visual training in young field hockey players improve the trained tasks, not object tracking (Schwab and Memmert, 2012). In 28 soccer players, after eight weeks of stroboscopic vision, tracking improves as much as in the controls (Fortes et al., 2025). The body matters too: destabilizing the footing degrades tracking (Zwierko et al., 2022), and a tracking task during the landing from a jump degrades the stability of 15 high-level soccer players (Ren et al., 2022), which links the task to postural control. The ecological critique by Renshaw et al. sums up the stakes: a perception isolated from action trains something other than the perception useful in play (Renshaw et al., 2018), which is what perception-action coupling describes. For the immersive version, see our article on decision-making in virtual reality.

Measuring object tracking: familiarization, age and stereoscopic depth

In 23 active adults, the speed threshold improves over the first six blocks of three tests: it takes 18 tests to get past the learning effect and obtain a reliable baseline, the average of three tests is recommended, and one to two weeks without practice change nothing (Moon et al., 2024). A score taken in a single session therefore mostly measures the discovery of the task.

Age counts too: in 404 soccer players aged 12 to 18, peak speed improves between 13 and 15 years (η² = 0.041), and the effect of short training does not depend on age (Zhang et al., 2025b). In 166 boys aged 10 to 16, scores are lower before about 13 years, better in 3D than in 2D, with no effect of training volume (Zhang et al., 2025a). Binocular depth changes the measurement, and the soccer players' advantage appears only in stereoscopy (Che et al., 2025).

Mental fatigue does not seem to affect the score: in 12 young basketball players, 60 minutes of Stroop leave 3D-MOT unchanged, after seven familiarization visits (Faro et al., 2023).

Links between the studies

Two points converge solidly: the experts' advantage in the laboratory and the improvement of the trained task. The divergence concerns the link with play, and it resolves in favor of the largest and best-controlled studies. For other tools and other fields, see our article on scanning in soccer and the one on reactive lights.

What nobody can promise you with a tracking score

Established: athletes, and above all team-sport experts, track better than non-athletes, with a gap that grows under heavy load; the trained task improves in every trial that measures it. Debated: a near transfer to sustained attention, processing speed or working memory, present in some trials and absent in others. Extrapolation: that training object tracking makes you play better, or that a score can be used to detect talent. No large controlled trial shows it, and two cohort studies, in hockey and, for one of them, in volleyball, find no link between score and game statistics, penalty minutes excepted.

Nobody can therefore promise you that an athlete who raises their speed threshold will read the game better at the weekend. The expert's advantage may come from their years of play, not from the task.

One prediction would settle it. If a preregistered trial, randomized by team, compared object-tracking training to practice of the same duration, took match decision-making as its primary criterion, scored blind, with full familiarization at the start and a two-month retention test, and found no difference, the hypothesis of a transfer to play would fall for this format.

Visual assessment: who to consult first

If your athlete reports double vision, persistent blur, headaches during exertion or dizziness, visual training waits. They see an ophthalmologist first, then an orthoptist in France, or an optometrist in Switzerland or the United States. LabO RNP is neither medical nor paramedical, and is added as a complement to a care pathway, never in its place. LabO RNP works with optometrists; the curriculum was built with them.

Tracking with the eyes to act: object tracking in the sensorimotor loop

LabO RNP trains movement professionals in the sensory aspects of movement and in the sensorimotor loop. Object tracking gives a textbook case: it degrades when the footing wobbles, and it in turn degrades the landing from a jump. Perceiving, balancing and acting form a single circuit, which is what representative design of practice expresses. For the place of the eyes in the session, read our article on oculomotor exercises in the warm-up; for all the families of visual training, our synthesis of the evidence in sports vision.

Field questions on multiple object tracking

What is multiple object tracking (MOT)?

It is a laboratory task described in 1988 by Pylyshyn and Storm: you follow several moving targets among identical distractors, then point them out. The 3D-MOT version presents it in stereoscopic 3D and adjusts the speed at each trial; the final score is a speed threshold. It draws on divided and sustained attention, peripheral vision and working memory (Marion et al., 2025).

Are elite athletes better at object tracking?

Yes, on average. Across 23 studies, athletes outperform non-athletes (g = 0.56) and experts outperform novices (g = 0.92) (Liu et al., 2024). The gap grows with the number of targets and the speed. It can disappear when the footing becomes unstable (Zwierko et al., 2022) or when the response mode changes.

Does multiple object tracking software improve match performance?

No controlled trial shows it to date. The task improves, but the trials in volleyball (Fleddermann et al., 2019), university soccer (Harenberg et al., 2022) and an academy (Romeas et al., 2025) find no gain in decision-making or play. The only positive result, published in 2016 in a small-sided game, concerned passing only and has not been replicated.

Can the tracking score be used to detect talent?

The data say no. In hockey, one session predicts neither draft rank nor game statistics (Tétreault et al., 2024). In 48 university athletes followed between 2019 and 2022, preseason scores are linked to no statistic, penalty minutes excepted (Acquin et al., 2025). The strong published correlations come from small groups.

How many tests are needed for a reliable baseline?

In active adults, 18 tests are needed to get past the learning effect, then the average of three tests to measure (Moon et al., 2024). One to two weeks without practice do not lower the score. A single test therefore mostly measures the discovery of the task.

Should you do a visual assessment before measuring an athlete's tracking?

It is prudent. In 218 elite soccer players, tracking varies weakly with phoria and stereopsis (Jorge et al., 2026). In case of double vision, blur or headaches, the ophthalmologist comes first, then the orthoptist or optometrist depending on the country. LabO RNP is neither medical nor paramedical, and is added as a complement to a care pathway, never in its place.

Object tracking says a lot about an athlete's attention, and almost nothing, to date, about what they will do with their next ball.

👉 I want to link what my athlete perceives to what they do on the field.

By the LabO RNP team

Method. Consolidated inventory of the vision and sport silo, built on November 3, 2026 from PubMed and the LabO RNP vault notes, filtered by keywords (multiple object tracking, MOT, 3D-MOT) on the stratum, themes, title and measured criteria (74 rows); 59 studies retained here, including seven added through a targeted PubMed search (Pylyshyn 1988, Meyerhoff 2017, Wierzbicki 2024, Zhang 2025b, Park 2021, Moon 2024 and Marion 2025 were not in it). Excluded: studies with no available abstract or verifiable identifier. Each PMID was verified against the PubMed record on November 3, 2026; four non-indexed studies are cited by their DOI, verified on Crossref. No commercial tool name appears in the text; some article titles contain one.

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